| Laying the Foundation (Background) |
Introduces historical or contextual information before the main argument. |
historically, traditionally, for centuries, until recently, originally |
For centuries, people believed diseases were caused by bad air. |
| Introducing |
Begins a new topic or concept. |
first, initially, to begin with, this article examines |
This article explores how memory develops. |
| Outlining |
Gives an overview or roadmap of what will follow. |
this paper discusses, first…next…finally |
The following sections examine three competing theories. |
| Defining |
Explains the meaning of a term or concept. |
refers to, is defined as, means, known as |
Photosynthesis refers to the process by which plants produce food. |
| Describing |
Gives characteristics or features of something. |
consists of, includes, contains, characterized by |
The machine consists of three main components. |
| Classifying |
Divides something into categories. |
can be divided into, classified as, grouped into |
Birds can be divided into migratory and non-migratory species. |
| Listing |
Presents several items or ideas. |
first, second, finally, another |
There are three main reasons for this change. |
| Sequencing |
Shows events or stages in order. |
first, then, afterwards, subsequently, finally |
The eggs hatch, then the larvae develop. |
| Explaining |
Explains how or why something happens. |
because, due to, results in, causes, occurs when |
Rain forms because warm air rises and cools. |
| Simple Reasoning |
Shows a logical relationship between ideas. |
therefore, thus, consequently, since, hence |
Since temperatures rose, glaciers melted faster. |
| Cause → Effect |
Shows that one event produces another. |
because, leads to, causes, results in |
Smoking increases the risk of lung disease. |
| Problem → Solution |
Presents an issue and then explains how it can be solved. |
problem, challenge, solution, address, overcome |
Water shortages were solved through recycling systems. |
| General → Specific |
Moves from a broad statement to detailed examples. |
for example, specifically, in particular |
Many animals migrate. For example, whales travel thousands of kilometres. |
| Specific → General |
Draws a general conclusion from examples. |
therefore, overall, thus |
These studies suggest climate change is accelerating. |
| Observation → Explanation |
Explains observed evidence or findings. |
suggests, indicates, explains, may be due to |
Bird populations declined, possibly because habitats disappeared. |
| Question → Answer |
Raises a question and then answers it. |
why? because, how? |
Why do whales sing? Scientists believe… |
| Hypothesis → Testing |
Introduces a theory and explains how it was tested. |
hypothesis, experiment, tested, investigated |
Researchers tested the hypothesis using satellite data. |
| Reporting Findings |
Presents research results. |
found, discovered, revealed, observed |
Researchers found a significant increase in rainfall. |
| Interpreting Findings |
Explains what research results mean. |
suggests, implies, indicates |
The findings suggest sleep improves memory. |
| Supporting |
Provides evidence for a claim. |
studies show, evidence suggests, according to, research found |
Several studies support this conclusion. |
| Illustrating (Giving Examples) |
Makes an idea clearer using examples. |
for example, for instance, such as |
Many insects, such as bees and ants, live in colonies. |
| Comparing |
Shows similarities and/or differences. |
similarly, likewise, compared with, unlike, whereas |
Unlike wolves, foxes usually hunt alone. |
| Contrasting |
Highlights differences between ideas. |
however, whereas, in contrast, on the other hand |
Cats are independent, whereas dogs are more social. |
| Defending |
Protects an idea against criticism. |
however, despite criticism, nevertheless, in fact |
Although critics disagreed, later evidence confirmed the theory. |
| Justifying |
Explains why an action or decision is reasonable. |
because, justified, necessary, therefore |
Doctors prioritised the sickest patients because resources were limited. |
| Criticising |
Points out weaknesses or problems. |
flawed, limitation, weakness, failed to |
The study’s sample size was too small. |
| Disproving |
Shows that an idea or theory is incorrect. |
contrary to, evidence now shows, no longer accepted |
Scientists now know this theory is incorrect. |
| Refuting |
Directly argues against another person’s claim. |
contrary to, however, although, instead |
Contrary to earlier claims, the evidence does not support this view. |
| Challenging Assumptions |
Questions commonly accepted beliefs. |
contrary to popular belief, surprisingly |
Contrary to popular belief, memory is not fixed. |
| Correcting Misconceptions |
Explains that a common belief is wrong. |
many believe…, in fact…, actually |
Many people believe bats are blind, but they are not. |
| Evaluating |
Assesses strengths and weaknesses. |
effective, successful, limited, beneficial |
The method is effective but expensive. |
| Conceding |
Accepts part of an opposing argument before continuing. |
although, admittedly, while it is true |
Although the approach is costly, its benefits outweigh the expense. |
| Qualifying |
Limits or softens a claim. |
may, might, generally, often, in most cases |
The treatment is generally effective but not always. |
| Exceptioning |
Identifies exceptions to a general rule. |
except, however, although, unless, with the exception of |
Most birds fly, except penguins. |
| Emphasising |
Draws attention to an important point. |
importantly, notably, above all, significantly |
Most importantly, the results were consistent. |
| Establishing Significance |
Explains why something matters. |
importantly, this matters because, significant |
This discovery could change medical treatment. |
| Extending an Idea |
Adds new information to an existing argument. |
furthermore, moreover, in addition |
Furthermore, recent studies support this conclusion. |
| Revising a Theory |
Updates or modifies an existing theory. |
more recently, revised, updated |
The theory has since been modified. |
| Resolving a Contradiction |
Explains conflicting evidence. |
although, however, this contradiction may be explained by |
The conflicting results were due to different climates. |
| Presenting a Paradox |
Highlights something that seems contradictory. |
surprisingly, paradoxically, despite |
Paradoxically, larger brains did not improve memory. |
| Predicting Implications |
Explains possible future effects. |
likely, could, may, in the future |
This discovery could transform agriculture. |
| Identifying Research Gaps |
Shows what is still unknown. |
little is known, remains unclear, unanswered |
Much remains unknown about whale communication. |
| Recommending Future Research |
Suggests further investigation. |
future studies, further research, should examine |
Future studies should investigate long-term effects. |
| Explaining Methodology |
Describes how research was conducted. |
researchers measured, participants, experiment, method |
Participants completed memory tests over six weeks. |
| Transitioning |
Moves from one topic or stage to another. |
meanwhile, however, turning to, next |
Having examined mammals, we now consider birds. |
| Connecting |
Links the current idea with previous information. |
similarly, likewise, in addition |
Similarly, dolphins display cooperative behaviour. |
| Concluding |
Brings the discussion to an end. |
overall, in conclusion, therefore, ultimately |
Overall, the evidence strongly supports the hypothesis. |
| Summarising |
Briefly restates the main ideas. |
in summary, overall, to sum up |
In summary, climate influences migration patterns. |
| Persuading |
Attempts to convince the reader. |
clearly, undoubtedly, it is evident that |
Clearly, governments should invest in renewable energy. |